Referendums in Europe: Country Overview and Rules

Referendums are held across Europe, but the rules differ more than almost any other part of democratic procedure. Switzerland stands apart with several national votes a year. Italy, Ireland, Liechtenstein and Denmark have firm constitutional rules for referendums. Many other countries hold national votes only on constitutional changes, EU membership or treaties, and Germany has no general national referendum at all.

The table below summarises the main national instruments. It is a simplified overview based on constitutional provisions; for detailed and current rules, consult the constitution of each country and research databases such as the Centre for Research on Direct Democracy (C2D).

Country overview

Country	Main national instruments	Who can trigger?	Binding?	Special thresholds
Switzerland	Mandatory referendum, optional referendum, popular initiative	Constitution; 50,000 voters (optional referendum); 100,000 voters (initiative)	Yes	Constitutional votes need people and cantons
Liechtenstein	Referendum and initiative	Citizens by signatures; parliament	Yes	–
Italy	Abrogative referendum; constitutional referendum	500,000 voters or five regional councils; for constitutional laws also a fifth of either chamber	Yes	Abrogative vote valid only if a majority of the electorate takes part
Ireland	Constitutional referendum	Mandatory for every constitutional amendment	Yes	Simple majority of votes cast
Denmark	Constitutional referendum; sovereignty referendum; referendum on bills	Constitution; a third of the members of parliament for bills	Yes	Additional approval thresholds measured against the electorate
France	Referendum on bills; constitutional referendum; shared-initiative referendum	President on proposal of government or parliament; parliamentarians with voter support	Yes	Shared initiative needs a fifth of parliament and a tenth of registered voters
Austria	Popular vote, people’s initiative, consultation	Constitution, parliament; citizens for initiatives	Popular vote yes; consultation no	Initiatives only oblige parliament to debate
United Kingdom	Ad hoc referendums by Act of Parliament	Parliament	Usually advisory	Rules set in each Act
Poland	Nationwide referendum	Lower house, or president with Senate consent	Binding if turnout over half	Turnout quorum
Portugal	National referendum	President on proposal of parliament or government	Binding if turnout over half	Turnout quorum
Spain	Consultative referendum; constitutional referendum	Government with parliamentary authorisation; constitutional procedure	Consultative votes advisory	–
Netherlands	No national referendum at present	–	–	An advisory referendum law applied from 2015 to 2018
Germany	No general national referendum	Only for reorganising the federal territory	–	Many votes at state and municipal level

This table describes procedures, not how often they are used. Some instruments exist on paper but are rarely or never triggered.

Three models in Europe

1. Referendums as a regular part of law-making

In Switzerland and Liechtenstein, citizens can challenge laws and propose constitutional amendments on their own initiative. Votes are scheduled several times a year, and many proposals are bundled on the same date. The double-majority rule for constitutional changes is explained on double majority.

2. Referendums tied to the constitution

In Ireland, every amendment to the constitution must be approved by the people. In Denmark, constitutional amendments and some transfers of sovereignty go to a vote. Italy adds an abrogative referendum that allows citizens to repeal existing laws, subject to a turnout quorum. These rules have produced many votes on EU treaties; see EU treaty referendums.

3. Occasional referendums on major questions

In the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal and many central and eastern European countries, national referendums are possible but infrequent, often linked to EU accession, independence or constitutional reform. In the UK, the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 sets the framework for campaigns and spending, while each referendum is called by its own Act.

Regional and local level

National rules tell only part of the story:

• Germany: all 16 states provide for popular initiatives and votes, and municipalities hold citizen-initiated local votes (Bürgerentscheid).
• Switzerland: cantons and municipalities hold far more votes than the federal level.
• Italy: regions can hold consultative and abrogative regional referendums.
• Austria: the states have their own provisions for initiatives and votes.

How the instruments differ

When comparing countries, four questions help:

1. Who triggers the vote? The constitution automatically, the authorities, or citizens by signature?
2. Who writes the text? Parliament (referendum) or citizens (initiative)? See referendum vs. initiative.
3. Is the result binding?
4. Are there thresholds? Turnout quorums, approval quorums or double majorities can make a vote fail even with more yes than no votes.

Basic definitions are on What is a referendum?.

Sources and limits of this overview

The table is based on the constitutions of the countries listed and is simplified for comparison. Constitutional rules change, and many details, such as signature deadlines, excluded subjects and campaign rules, are left out. For legal or academic use, please check the current constitutional text and official election authorities. This page does not evaluate whether more or fewer referendums would be desirable.